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1. Introduction
2. Objectives
3. General discussion
3.1. Digestive tracts of rabbits
3.2. Nutritive requirements of rabbits
3.3. Potential of vegetable wastes as feed for
livestock
3.4. Evaluation of woody legumes as animal feeds
4. Conclusions
5. Acknowledgement
6. References
The Royal Project Foundation has as the objective of improving the quality of life of people from the hill tribes in Thailand and of initiating sustainable development and food security in the mountainous areas. The project was established by His Majesty King Rama IX in 1969. The project has been setting up Development Centres in five provinces in the northern part of Thailand. The locations of the development centres are in the highlands near the borders of Myanmar and Laos, the lowest about 700 metres above sea level and the highest 1,300 metres above sea level (Angkasith, 2005). The project has been stimulating farmers from the hill tribes to cultivate sub-tropical and temperate crops, such as fruit trees, beverage plants, ornamental plants, field crops and vegetables. Livestock have also been introduced in a pattern of smallholder integrated farming systems. Integrated farming systems in these project areas mean that the farmer can use by-products or post- harvest residues to feed to their animals and use animal manure as fertilizer for the crops.
The rabbit raising in the project area was started by missionaries. Lukefahr and Cheeke (1990) mentioned that rabbits were first introduced into many developing countries by colonial settlers and missionaries. When the project started raising rabbits they had almost disappeared from the area. The rabbits that have been promoted to farmers by the project are of New Zealand White breed and crossbred New Zealand White and native breed; both breeds are of the meat type. The rabbit is a new alternative animal to be introduced to the farmers. The advantages of rabbit production are that the rabbits can be kept in small cages and can be adapted to a backyard rearing system, and the short time to produce meat using feeds of low cost as forages or agricultural by-products (Cheeke, 1986). Rabbit meat can play an important role for food security for the households as it is a high quality protein source for the family (Phimmasan, 2005) and can be sold in the local or the project market.
The most important problems in the project at present are
connected with the studies in Paper I and Paper II. The first
problem is the environmental pollution in the form of waste from
the crops produced. The waste from crop production consist to more
than 80% of vegetable waste from head lettuce, cabbage, spinach,
kale etc, and these wastes can be well utilized as feed resources
for livestock such as pigs and cattle, without any negative effect
on the animal (Mikled, 2005). The second problem is the natural
weeds in the cropping area, and in this case the interest is
focused on mimosa (Mimosa pigra). This weed is an uncommon
plant in the mountainous area and has probably spread by seeds
included in green fertilizer. The rapid spread of this weed has
become a complicating factor in land use management for the
farmers. Miller (1988) reported that the best method to control
this weed is by harvesting the plant for fire-wood or as feed for
animals by cutting before flowering and seeding. Many authors have
already mentioned the use of Mimosa pigra as animal feed,
for small ruminants by Vearasilp et al. (1981b), large ruminants by
Niemsup and Siri (1983) and pigs by Vearasilp et al.
(1981a).
The objectives for the present study were:
To evaluate the effect of feeding head lettuce
(Lactuca sativa) residue, mimosa (Mimosa pigra),
water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica) and Ruzi grass
(Brachiaria ruziziensis) to male and female rabbits of 2
breeds (New Zealand White and crossbred New Zealand White x native
breed) on growth performance, feed intake and
digestibility.
To determine the effect of feeding head lettuce
(Lactuca sativa) residue and Mimosa pigra compared to
Ruzi grass on growth performance, feed intake, production cost and
net benefit for rabbits on-farm.
Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) are herbivores, have a selective behaviour when eating, and are classified as hindgut (caecum and colon) fermentors (McNitt et al., 1996; Leng, 2006). The rabbit occupies a niche midway between ruminants and monogastric animals, as the digestion mechanism by mammalian enzymes from mouth to small intestine are the same as for monogastrics and the fermentation process by microbial enzyme the same as in ruminants starting from the hindgut (caecum and colon). The total length of the alimentary canal is 4.5 to 5 m, and after a short oesophagus there is a simple stomach with a capacity of around 60 g to 80 g of bolus. The longest part is the small intestine, about 3 m long and nearly 1 centimetre in diameter. The two major glands secreting into the small intestine are the liver and the pancreas. The bile salts from the liver contain no enzymes but many organic substances and assist in the fat breakdown process. The pancreatic juice from pancreas contains digestive enzymes, allowing the breakdown of proteins (trypsin and chymotrypsin), starch (amylase) and fat (lipase). The nutrient absorption is also high in the small intestine, especially for protein, where up to 90% of all protein is absorbed (Buddington and Diamond, 1990). This digestion process takes around 4-7 hours and the feed particles that are not broken down are transferred to the caecum.
The main organs in the hind gut are caecum and colon. The caecum is a blind pouch branching off from the small intestine-colon axis, 40-45 cm long and 3-4 cm in diameter. The size is very large when compared to the rest of the gut, and the colon forms a spiral that fills the abdominal cavity (Steven and Hume, 1995). The microbial population is found in the caecum. The feed particles that have not been broken down, including fiber, are fermented by bacterial enzymes in this part. Large particles of feed (over 0.3 mm long) and undigested fiber are eliminated and secreted as hard faeces during the daytime. Small particles are sent to caecum for fermentation, where the bacteria digest cellulose, excess starch and any remaining protein not digested in the small intestine. The main products from the bacterial digestion process are similar to the fermentation in the rumen, (volatile fatty acids (VFA)) and they are then absorbed into the host blood system. In the early morning, the content of the caecum is transferred to the colon and coated by the colon mucous, and the pellets formed in this process look like elongated clusters. These pellets are called night faeces or soft faeces (Caecotropes). Cheeke (1994) reported that the Caecotropes are secreted 8 hours after the consumption of feed.
The Caecotropes (soft faeces) are rich in vitamins (especially vitamin B complex) and higher in protein and water and lower in fiber than the hard faeces. The chemical composition of soft faeces and hard faeces is presented in Table 1. Rabbits can eat the Caecotropes directly from their anus by swallowing without chewing, and the boluses are thus returned to the digestive system. During the time the Caecotropes return to the digestive system, the microbial activity in the pellets under the mucous coat still runs continuously to produce VFA, vitamin B complex and microbial cells supplied to the rabbit. The Caecotropes are broken down and the nutrient content absorbed in the small intestine, while the undigested parts enter the hindgut and start the fermenting process, as mentioned earlier.
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Table 1. Chemical composition of soft faeces and hard faeces |
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Soft Faeces |
Hard faeces |
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Dry matter, g kg-1 In g kg-1 DM Crude protein Crude fiber In mg kg-1 Nicotinic acid Riboflavin Pantothenic acid Bacteria (1010 g-1 DM) |
340
300 180
139 30 52 142 |
470
170 300
40 9 8 31 |
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Source: Carabano and Piquer, 1998 |
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Rabbits have a high feed intake of 65 g to 80 g kg/BW and a rapid transit rate of feed in the digestive system to meet nutritional requirements (Carabano and Piquer, 1998). The amount of feed consumed and the nutritive requirements vary with the age of the rabbit and can be categorized in to 4 groups of age: 1) young rabbits (4-12 weeks of age or fattening); 2) lactating does 3) pregnant does and 4) maintenance or non-producing rabbits (Sandford, 1996).
Rabbits have a small body size and high metabolic rate so when given free choice of feed rabbits always choose to eat the young and tender part of the plants with high nutritive value. Rabbits sleep during the day and consumption of feed takes place mostly in the late afternoon and early evening.
Water consumption is very important for the feed intake of rabbits. In normal conditions the consumption of water is around 100 ml to 600 ml/day or 50 ml to 100 ml/kg BW (University of Wisconsin, 2006). Verdelhan et al (2004) mentioned that the feed intake of rabbits was significantly reduced when water consumption was restricted.
Rabbits are animals with rapid growth requiring good protein
quality and all essential amino acids. The microbial protein from
the soft faeces can not even support the requirement for
maintenance (NRC, 1977). Normally, producing rabbits, such as
lactating or pregnant does or growing and fattening rabbits, have a
higher protein requirement than non-producing animals, 17% to 18%,
16 % and 13 % of crude protein (CP) in the diet for pregnant and
lactating does, growing rabbits and non-producing rabbits,
respectively (NRC, 1977). The rabbit can utilize the protein in
forages efficiently. Cheeke (1974) cited by NRC (1977) indicated
that digestibility of protein in alfalfa was 79% when substituted
for soybean meal. Positive relationships between protein intake and
growth performance of rabbits have been presented in many research
papers. Bamikole and Ewanza (1999) showed that when feeding Guinea
grass and Verano stylo hay supplemented with concentrate, protein
intakes were 11.58 g, 10.99 g and 8.47 g/day, and daily gains were
8.44 g, 8.35 g and 5.13 g/day. The results from Jokthan et al.
(2003) and Chat et al. (2005) support the results from Bamikole and
Ewanza (1999) concerning the effect of protein intake on weight
gain. The results in Paper I and Paper II also show the important
relationship between protein intake and weight gain. The rabbits
fed Ruzi grass had the lowest protein intake 7.7 g and 8.0 g/day,
and the daily gain was only 14.8 g and 15.9 g/day in Paper I and
Paper II, respectively. The highest protein intake was from
Mimosa pigra 15.6 g and 17 g/day, and the daily gain was
18.5 g and 19.2 g/day in Paper I and Paper II, respectively.
Although rabbits have a microbial ecosystem for fermentation in
the caecum which is similar to the system in the rumen, the major
protein and essential amino acid sources are true protein coming
from the feed. Non-protein nitrogen such as urea can not
successfully replace the true protein, because this source of
nitrogen either degrade or is absorbed too early and can not be
utilised by the micro-organisms in the caecum (FAO, 1997). Cheeke
(1994) reported that urea is converted to ammonia in the rabbit gut
and when absorbed, results in toxicity and causes liver or kidney
lesions.
The energy needed for growth is usually supplied by
carbohydrates and to a lesser degree by fat. The requirement of
energy for rabbits is generally not presented in the same way as
for other species eg. MJ ME/day. The growing rabbit, like the
breeding doe, can to a certain degree adjust the feed intake
according to the energy content in the feeds offered. The energy
requirement is therefore presented as energy content/kg feed.
According to FAO (1997) the energy requirement is between 2,200 to
3,200 kcal DE/kg of feed, based on age and production stage,
lactating and growing rabbits needing more energy than
non-producing rabbits. Sandford (1996) suggests 10.9 MJ, 10.4 MJ
and 9.2 MJ DE/kg feed for lactating does, pregnant does and growing
rabbits and non-producing rabbits, respectively. The digestible
energy (DE) in foliages fed in Paper I were 8.7 MJ, 10.6 MJ, 13.6
MJ and 15.0 MJ/kg, for Ruzi grass, Mimosa pigra, water
spinach and head lettuce residue, and for DE in concentrate diet
about 14 MJ/kg. The estimated intake was 0.7 MJ to 1.2 MJ DE/day.
The energy content in the diet affects the volume of soft faeces
consumed. Feeding low energy diets increases the consumption of
Caecotropes and high energy diets reduces the consumption of
Caecotropes (Irlbeck, 2001). Lorente et al. (1988) indicated that
lactating and pregnant does increase the intake of soft faeces to
meet their high nutritive requirement.
Starch is the major source of energy for rabbits, and almost all
VFA are produced from the starch-based part of the diet and not
from the forage part (Cheeke, 1994). Several authors have commented
on the disadvantage of imbalanced high-starch diets for the
microbial function in the caecum. High starch diets are not
completely digested in the small intestine so this indigested
starch becomes a good source for microbial fermentation and causes
rapid increase in the population of microbes. If the microbial
ecology balance in the caecum fails, the number of toxic bacteria
(primarily Clostridium spiroforme) will increase more than
bacteria that digest fiber. The toxins from toxin-producing
microbes cause enteritis and possible death (McNitt et al., 1996;
Stevens and Hume, 1995).
Rabbits are monogastric herbivores that need relative high
intake of fibrous feeds. Growing, pregnant and non-producing
rabbits require around 12% to 14%, and lactating does about 10 %
fiber in the diet (FAO, 1997). Diets containing less than 6% crude
fiber may promote diarrhoea (Spreadbury, 1975 cited by NRC, 1977).
Normally fiber is not the main source for producing VFA for energy,
in contrast to ruminants (NRC, 1977). However, the fiber has a
ballast value, being important in the transit for digestive
regulation and as protection against digestive trouble (McNitt, et
al., 1996)
The fiber can not be degraded by enzymes from the rabbit, but
can be digested by bacterial enzymes. The cellulolytic bacteria can
digest cell walls and polysaccharides in plants, and the
Bacteroides are normally found as a major bacteria group in
the caecum (Irlbeck, 2001). In a balanced diet there is an optimum
carbohydrate and fiber ratio when the cellulolytic bacteria get
enough fiber as feed sources to increase the population and to
control the balance of the micro-organism ecology. Diarrhoea and
enteritis in rabbits are caused by bacteria belonging to a minor
group in the hind gut. Bacteria in this group are E.coli and
Clostridia, which produce toxic substances (Cheeke, 1994).
If rabbits are fed imbalanced diets high in starch and low in
fiber, undigested starch will be available as a substrate for this
minor bacteria group which will increase in numbers and produce
toxins harming the gut lining, causing diarrhoea and enteritis.
Bennegadi et al. (2001) showed clearly that rabbits fed a diet
deficient in fibers (CF 72 g/kg DM) had 25 % higher mortality rate
than for a standard diet (CF 162 g/kg DM and 9 % mortality rate).
Supplying dietary fiber to rabbits is essential to avoid
digestive disturbances. However, attention should be paid to
balance the fiber supply from different kinds of fiber with both
low and high digestibility. Cellulose and lignin that are poorly
digested play a key role in reducing the incidence of diarrhoea
(Gidenne, 2003). The foliages in Paper I and Paper II can be
divided into 2 groups based on the CF content in the feed; high CF
content, Mimosa pigra 220 g to 240 g/kg DM and Ruzi grass
266 g to 277 g/kg DM and low CF content, head lettuce residue and
water spinach, 127 g and 126 g/kg DM, respectively. There were no
problems with hind gut metabolism in rabbits fed high CF and no
diarrhoea in the animals fed low CF, although CF content in the
feed was lower than the recommendations. The reason could have been
that the digestibility coefficients of CF and DM in the vegetable
foliages were high, 56% to 59 % for CF and 73% to 79 % for DM and
they could also get some fiber from the concentrate feed, 54 g to
58 g/kg DM.
The rabbit requires vitamins and minerals in low amounts, but
these compounds are still essential for normal function. A balanced
diet normally supplies enough vitamins and minerals, but lactating
and pregnant does may need additional vitamins and minerals to
produce milk, tissues and bones for the cubs (FAO, 1997).
As mentioned above the Caecotropes are soft faeces or night faeces that are secreted in the early morning, and the microbes continue to be active in these faeces. Coprophagy is the behaviour of an animal in consuming its own faeces to supply nutrients from the microbial process. Coprophagia of Caecotropes gives the rabbit the potential to get nutrients from indigested residues and increase the digestibility of the nutrients, including microbial cells, volatile fatty acids (VFA) and vitamin B complex. Stevens and Hume (1995) reported that Caecotropes had a CP content of approximately 280 g/kg, while Carabano and Piquer (1998) showed a CP content of 300 g/kg. Microbial protein in Caecotropes can supply from 15% to 20% of the total protein intake, but the microbial protein is of quite poor quality and has less essential amino acids according to McNitt et al. (1996), however , the microbial protein is a good protein source and supplies high quality protein (Carabano and Piquer, 1998). VFA can be metabolised and absorbed in the hind gut tissue and supply up to 40% of the energy requirements for maintenance (Mary and Verny, 1984, cited by Carabano and Piquer, 1998). Vitamin B complex in the Caecotropes ise enough for maintenance requirements of these soluble vitamins (FAO, 1997).
The Caecotropes can supply nutrients to the rabbits in case of poor protein or low vitamin diets in traditional raising conditions. The advantage of Caecotrophy was confirmed in an experiment where rabbits were fed water spinach and were either free or prevented to practise coprophagy. The results clearly showed that the growth rates of rabbits allowed to practise coprophagy had higher daily gain than those prevented (Chiv and Kaensombath, 2006).
The vegetables are plants for human consumption. Characteristic of the products are that they are easy to damage from transportation to market, have a short shelf life, rot easily during the marketing process and some parts are left in the fields or as residues from the cutting and packing process. Vegetables wastes that are produced during the marketing process will become a huge garbage problem, which will affect the environment. If attention is paid to manage these vegetable wastes, they can be utilized as feed for animals and there will be a double benefit from reduction of the garbage and feeding animal with low cost feeds.
Ngu (2001) studied cabbage and cauliflower as feeds for goats and Arias et al. (2003) lettuce, radish leaf, cabbage etc to dairy cattle, and both concluded that the vegetable waste had a high protein but a low DM content, and the latter may limit DM intake. The DM intake can be improved by supplementing feeds with high fiber content. The chemical composition of various kinds of vegetable wastes and some vegetables is presented in Table 2.
When using vegetables or vegetable wastes as animal feeds the anti-nutritive substances in the vegetables must be considered, for example concerning the vegetables that belong to the genus Brassica (cabbage, cauliflower etc.). Gustine et al. (1985) cited by Ngu (2001) concluded that animal health problems are likely to develop when young growing sheep, cattle, swine or chickens are fed for extended periods of time on Brassica forage because of the Brassica-derived glucosinolates. The vegetables must also not be contaminated by chemicals or pesticides.
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Table 2. Chemical composition of some vegetables and vegetable wastes |
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DM g/kg |
g DM/kg |
References |
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CP |
CF |
NDF |
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Head lettuce residues Head lettuce residues Head lettuce Cabbage leaves Cabbage leaves Cabbage leaves Cauliflower leaves Cauliflower leaves Cauliflower waste Radish leaf Water spinach Water spinach Water spinach leaves Water spinach leaves Water spinach stems |
39 39 79 136 53 86 110 102 91 87 62 139 120 116 69 |
188 208 181 189 233 280 257 297 173 268 252 232 318 351 205 |
127 123 136 120 - 186 128 - 188 137 126 - 89 86 172 |
251 - - - 279 - - 276 - - 322 356 402 - - |
Paper I Paper II Arias et al. (2003) Arias et al. (2003) Ngu (2001) Gupta et al. (1993) Arias et al. (2003) Ngu (2001) Gupta et al.(1993) Arias et al. (2003) Paper I Gang et al. (2006) Dong et al. (2006) Samkol (2005) Samkol (2005) |
The vegetable wastes have a high protein content at no or low cost. The disadvantage of the waste is the low fiber content (Ngu, 2001; Arias et al., 2003). The findings in the Paper I and Paper II showed that the head lettuce residue had a high protein content but low DM, and water spinach was similar. The digestive system of rabbits allows that they can be raised on feeds that in other non-ruminant species are related to low productivity. However, the low fiber content can affect the digestive parameters related to diarrhoea (Blas et al., 1994). Gang et al. (2006) found that low fiber and DM intake can be avoided by feeding sweet potato vine or water spinach with Guinea grass. Vegetables have a higher nutrient digestibility than grass, and for example lettuce DM digestibility was 71 % (Arias et al., 2003) and 79 % (Paper I) compared to Ruzi grass 61 % (Narmsilee et al., 2003), and 49 % (Paper I), Guinea grass 53 % (Bamikol and Ezenwa, 1999) and Napier grass 46 % (Lukefahr and Cheeke, 1990).
The use of water spinach as feed for rabbits has been studied by
many researchers (Phimmasan et al., 2004; Chat et al., 2005;
Samkol, 2005; Dong et al., 2006), and water spinach has been used as the basal
diet or replacing other forages. The effects of feeding water spinach to rabbits
on growth rate and feed intake are
shown in Table 3.
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Table 3. Effect of water spinach on feed intake, weight gain and FCR |
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Feeding method |
DM g/day |
Protein g DM/d |
LWG g/day |
FCR |
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1. Ad libitum + concentrate 2% of BW 2. Ad libitum + broken rice 12 g/day 3. Ad libitum 4. Ad libitum + broken rice 20 g/day 5. Ad libitum 6. Ad libitum + molasses block 5% of BW 7.Ad libitum + Guinea grass + molasses block 5% of BW 8. 50 % Paragrass replacement + paddy rice 30 g/day 9. 75 % Paragrass replacement + same as 8. |
66 70 74 32 40 122 149
81
76 |
13 20 23 7 11 21 22
14
15 |
18.4 13.3 14.0 22.4 18.1 21.9 26.4
17.3
19 |
3.6 5.2 5.3 2.1 2.7 10.7 8.2
4.7
4.0 |
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Sources: 1. result from Paper I; 2-3 Samkol, 2005; 4-5. Phimmasan et al., 2004; 6-7 Gang et al., 2006; 8-9 Dong et al., 2006 |
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Water spinach is a forage with a high protein content, about 220 g /kg DM (Chat et al., 2005), and with a high nutritive value (Preston, 2006), and can be fed as a sole diet to rabbits (Phimmasan et al., 2004; Samkol et al., 2005). According to Table 3, the daily gains of rabbits were 13 g to 22 g/day when fed water spinach.
In the tropical vegetation in the South East Asian countries a great variety of plants can be found. Some plants are suitable for human food and many families of plants can be used as animal feeds. The focus on the following is on the legume family and especially on the woody legumes and legume trees. Mui and Preston (2005) mention that tropical tree legumes are rich in most minerals and generally have a range of digestibilities similar to tropical grasses. The legumes are a fibrous feed source and are also high in protein content, and legume foliage can supply low cost protein of good quality to livestock (Huy et al., 2000). Woody legumes that have been already studied as feed for livestock are Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala), Gliricidia (Gliricidia sapium), Flemingia (Flemingia macrophylla) and Mimosa (Mimosa pigra). Almost all the leguminous mentioned have been used for ruminants (Huy et al., 2000; Keopaseuth et al., 2005; Hong and Quac, 2005). The chemical composition of some legumes is presented in Table. 4
Some of the tropical legumes contain toxic substances e.g. Leucaena contains mimosine, and the solution suggested is to use a mixture of forages, which would enable the concentration of specific toxins to be kept to non-hazardous levels (Lukefahr and Cheeke, 1990). Thus the potentially valuable feeds can be utilized as mixtures. According to Vearasilp et al. (1981a) Mimosa pigra did not contain mimosine, can improve the protein content in a sheep diet by mixing with para grass, and did not reduce digestibility of the feed (Vearasilp et al., 1981b)
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Table 4. Chemical composition of some woody legumes. |
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DM g/kg |
g/kg DM |
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Legume forages |
CP |
CF |
NDF |
References |
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1. Leucaena leucocephala 2. Leucaena leucocephala 3. Gliricidia sepium 4. Gliricidia sepium 5. Flemingia macrophylla 6. Mimosa pigra 7. Mimosa pigra |
257 262 340 209 273 360 363 |
304 205 - 201 191 207 177 |
154 171 - 117 247 - 220 |
- - - - - 534 500 |
Huy et al., 2000 Nhan, 2000 Keopaseuth et al., Huy et al., 2000 Huy et al., 2000 Hong and Quac, 2005 Paper I |
The leguminous plants also can be fed successfully to rabbits to provide protein and fiber. Non-woody leguminous plants such as Verano stylo and Stylosanthes have been studied by Bamikole and Ezenwa (1999) and Phimmasan (2005). Both legumes can be fed together with or as a replacement for concentrate, and the daily gain was 8.4 g and 16.9 g/day for Verano stylo and Stylosanthes, respectively.
Onwudike (1995) supplied Gliricidia sepium and Leucaena leucocephala as green foliages to rabbits with a pelleted feed as basal diet with about 18 % CP content. The weight gain of the rabbits fed Gliricidia sepium was highest, but the legume foliages did not reduce the pellet intake. The toxin in these woody legumes, especially in the Leucaena treatment, reduced growth rate and caused hair loss (alopecia) and degenerative changes of kidney and liver. The negative effects were noted when Leucaena was fed as a sole green feed but not when fed at 50 % of the green feed. In Gliricidia a few degenerative changes of kidney and liver were noted but no external signs of any deleterious effects. The digestibility of Flemingia was lowest when compared to Mulberry and Trichanthera and also lowest in N intake and negative for N retention (Luyen et al., 2003). Mimosa pigra was used in Papers I and II, and the rabbits did not seem to be affected negatively by this legume. On the contrary growth rate and feed, protein and fiber intake was high in this treatment.
When offering legumes as feeds for rabbits, the best way is to mix the foliages to avoid too high levels of toxic compounds in the legumes.
Rabbits are the new alternative for food and jobs for farmers. Rabbits can improve the food situation for the farmer and his/her family (rabbit meat is a good protein source) by raising in small-scale farming systems.
The farmer can also earn money from selling rabbits in the market. Meat and cubs can be produced from low cost feed and with low investment, and agricultural by-products or forages around the farm can be harvested as feeds.
Head lettuce residue is an available waste in the project area and can be offered to rabbits to supply protein and minerals. The growth rate on-station and on-farm showed quite good values for this vegetable waste, about 18 g to 19 g/day.
The high water and low fiber content is a disadvantage but can be solved by pre-drying and mixing with high fiber foliages such as mimosa or native grass.
Mimosa pigra seems to be a perfect feed with high protein
and also high fiber content and without toxic compounds. It may be
an option to feed this foliage as a basal feed or mixed with low
fiber but high protein foliage to improve CF in feed.
The author would like to express their gratitude to the MEKARN project, supported by the Swedish International Development Agency (Sida), Department for Research Cooperation (SAREC), for funding this research and scholarship for this MSc. Programme.
Special appreciation is extended to the Royal Project Foundation of Thailand for giving permission to participate in this study programme and providing facilities during my experimental period in the Royal Project Demonstration Farm.
I m very grateful and would like to express my special thanks to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Inger Ledin, for all her valuable knowledge and advice, encouragement, and discussions throughout the study.
I would like to express deep appreciation to my supervisor in Thailand Assistant Prof. Dr. Choke Mikled, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University, for his encouragement, invaluable suggestions, guidance for the experiment, corrections, and helping me to bring this thesis to full completion.
Thanks to all my teachers who gave useful lectures and encouraged me during the courses.
To all my classmates, from Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam who have helped me and gave friendship and warm hospitality during the study. Also special thanks are extended to all other whose names do not appear herein.
Last but not least, I am grateful to my family, especially my mother, for their love and encouragement.
And special thanks for every person in Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia
and Thailand who have shared and gave me special experiences during
the course.
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