Palm (Elaeis guineensis) oil, cassava foliage and broken rice as feed resource for growing pigs 

Chhay Ty

 University of Tropical Agriculture Foundation
Chamcar Daung, PO Box 2423, Phnom Penh 3, Cambodia
chhayty@utafoundation.org

 

Introduction

Livestock play an important role in the lives of Cambodia farmers. Cattle and buffalo are used for draft power; pigs, chickens and ducks are raised for cash income and home consumption. Livestock and poultry thus actively contribute to the livelihood of the small farms in the rural area in Cambodia. Pigs are commonly raised by a scavenging system, whereby one to two pigs are commonly raised for sale or for ceremonial purposes such as weddings or banquets. Pigs are usually purchased after the rice harvest and raised for 8 to 9 months. The main feed resource is kitchen waste, sometimes supplemented with banana stems or sweet potato leaves and rice bran. The composition of the diets will depend on the money available to buy feed and the availability of by-products from the farmers’ own paddy rice. Piglets are commonly purchased at a live weight of 4 to 6 kg, the common breeds being crosses between Yorkshire or Landrace with the local breed. Farmers have their own opinion, based on experience as to the choice of pigs to raise.  Pigs grow slowly due to the use of feeds with a very low level of  protein and high fibre content. Solarte et al (1994) reported that the growth rate of pigs under traditional management system was only 60g/day, while when given a supplement of 200g of crude protein the rate of weight gain increased to a range of from 243 to 445g/day. The performance of scavenging pigs in the rainy season seems to be somewhat better than in the dry season due to the fact that pigs are able to find natural sources of protein-rich feed materials such as earth worm, green leaves are improve the protein supply (Borin et al 1996) However the pigs are tied during this period because it coincides with the rice cultivation time. When pigs are set free, they are usually affected by parasite and disease.

Animals are generally sold through middlemen who frequently visit the village. If the possible farmers use their own transport to take animal to the slaughter house, as the price of pigs at the slaughter house is better than the price offered by the middlemen. Many years ago, farmers slaughter their animal by themselves and sell the meat in the nearby villages but this is not permitted today.

 

2. OBJECTIVES

The studies were carried out:

To evaluation the effect of graded levels of palm oil on digestibility and N balance

To evaluation the influence of type of palm oil and cassava leaves maturity on digestibility and N balance

To evaluation the effect of graded levels of palm oil on performance traits

 

 

 

 

 

3. General discussion

3.1 Use of local available products for feeding pigs in tropical areas.

 

Available feed resource will be dominant in tropical region as pressure carried out sustainable agriculture practice increases. The feeds resources are many in the tropical areas such as the fibrous residue from crops grown for human food production. New feed resource derived from crops grown primarily as source of renewable energy or as contributors to soil fertility. In this category will be the range of products and by-product derived from sugar cane (FAO 1988; Figueroa and Ly 1990; Sarria et al 1990; Perez 1995). African oil palm (Ocampo et al 1990a,b; Ocampo 1992 and Ocampo 1994a,b,c) the sugar palm tree (Borin et al 1996), other multi-purpose trees and aquatic plants. These are rich in available energy (the juice from sugar cane and sugar palm, the oil and fruit from the African oil palm or in protein the leaves from multipurpose trees and aquatic plants). The leaves of most water plants are more digestible than the leaves from trees and generally they appear to have low concentrations of anti-nutritional factors. The problem in practice has proved to be more in the area of agronomy than in nutrition.

The traditional sources of protein in the diets of monogastric animals are the by-product from oilseed milling and the processing of livestock, including fish. There is an urgent necessity to develop protein sources that can be produced and processed on the farm. There is a scope for the cultivation of traditional protein crop such as soybean, groundnut, sunflower, as component of integrated and associated cropping systems, unconventional legumes such as Canavalia ensiformis and Canavalia gladiata have received attention from researcher in Africa (Udebibie 1991). One way to achieve sustainable animal production systems is to match them with the available local resource (Preston and Leng 1987)  

 

3.2. The requirement of protein and energy of pigs

 

Nutrition requirement for pigs reared in tropic have different. High energy are not necessary to maintain body temperature and a depression in growth rate is a well known consequence of a reduction in voluntary feed intake due to heat (Stahly et al 1979)

 

3.2.1.The requirement of protein

 

The requirements of protein are varied between breed, age and growth rate of animals etc. According to Duc et al (1997) reported that exotic breeds (Large white or landrace) have a higher genetic potential in growth rate, as well as higher lean ration than local breed (Mongcai). The advantage of protein are growth faster, means less times for reaching slaughter weight, slightly leaner carcasses which to low interest, labor costs and increased returns. Cunha (1977) recommended that piglets should be supplement with a diet containing 22% crude protein of a good quality. The essential amino acid requirement of sows can be contained in 30-50% less total protein than what is recommended by NRC (1988), which is inflated by the presence of excessive amounts of the non-essential amino acid present in cereal grains. The principle of pig production is to daily lean gain. It is important that the maximum rate of body protein is achieved with as wastage of the ingested protein as possible, it is therefore advisable to provide feed to pigs with necessary amount of protein containing a well balanced profile of essential amino acid.  The local breed of pigs reared in the tropic have a much lower potential of lean tissue deposition than modern hybrids,

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pigs have to add more protein to meet the amino acid requirement; therefore, protein supplement with good protein quality must be added to meet the precise nutrient requirement of pigs. Tenth amino acids are recognized as essential for swine. Protein supplement must be added to swine ration at levels, which meet all the essential amino acid. Usually lysine is the first limiting amino acid in most practical of swine. Tryptophan or threonine may be also deficient. Soybean meal is usually the most economic source of essential amino acid in practical swine rations and can be used as the only source of supplemental protein. Soybean meal is manufactured to contain 44 to 48% crude protein and also fishmeal is a high quality protein source that contains 61% crude protein and 4.75% lysine. It is high cost usually restrict its usage to piglets diets from 4.54 to 11.4kg.

           

Essential and Nonessential amino acid

 

There are 20 primary amino acids that occur in protein. Not all of them are essential dietary components. Amino acid that can’t be synthesized or can’t be synthesized at a sufficient rate to permit optimal growth or reproduction are termed essential, normal swine diet contain adequate amounts of nonessential amino acids or of amino groups for their synthesis. Few amino acids don’t fit neatly into the essential and nonessential classifications.

 

3.2.2.The requirement of energy

 

The requirements of pig are different amount breed, age and maturity. Pigs can be supplied energy by carbohydrates, fat or proteins. Fat contain about 2.25 times as much energy per unit of weight as do carbohydrates and protein. Protein supplement should not be used as energy sources because of cost. Substituting fats for carbohydrates quickly increase the energy density of a ration (Jone et al 1995). Since swine generally eat to meet their daily energy requirement, increasing the caloric density of the feed results in a reduction of total feed intake by pigs on full feed and improves feed efficiency. When energy is increased, the density of mineral, vitamins and amino acid must be increase (Jone et al 1995).  Energy consumed in excess of that required for body maintenance, muscle growth, lactation or reproduction will result in a build up to body fats. Added fat is most beneficial in the ration during hot weather when pigs naturally eat less feed. The higher energy ratios will help keep the energy intake the same, however the costs of fat versus grain sources of energy determine the economic efficiency of highs energy diet.

 

3.3.The effect of the environment on nutrient utilization and growth

 

According to Richard et al (2002) reported that the environment is strong effect on nutrient utilization and growth. Due to its effect on feed intake, the thermal environment can have a tremendous effect on both growth rate and feed efficiency, the thermal environment also can affect the composition of gain. Pigs exposed to extremely cold temperature will consume excessive the quantities of feed in an effort to offset heat loss and maintain normal body temperature. At other extreme, during heat stress, feed intake decrease in order to reduce the heat production associated with the digestion and metabolism of nutrient. Because of this relationship associated with environmental temperature changes. Usually feed intake will increase when pig house in a cold environment will consume more lysine than is needed for maximum lean growth rate unless the level of lysine in diet is reduced. On the other hand, during hot season, when feed intake is reduced pig will not consume sufficient amounts of lysine for normal lean gain to occur unless the concentration of lysine in the diet is increased. 

 

4. Cassava leaves for feeding pigs

           

4.1.The role of cassava in integrated farming system

 

The role of cassava in integrated farming system is closely linked with two major issues that must be addressed. The first issue is the need to control global warming by using optimum of natural resource and the second issue is the need to improve the environment and to reduce pollution (Preston 2001).

Cassava (Manihot esculenta) is widely cultivated in different regions in tropic of Africa, Latin America and Asia (Calpe 1992). It can adopt to a variety of climatic condition  throwth a warm and humid climate is prefered. Cassava is a drought-tolerant crop and can grow well in area where are occasionally prolonged spans of drought. even on the infertile soils. Cassava leaves are a readily available product at the time of harvesting the roots. It is normally ready for harvest from the 7^th months of age. However, according to Montaldo (1977) reported that cassava plants can withstand defoliation for several years if they received adequate fertilization and irrigation, and under such management have the potential to produce up to 4 tones of protein per hectare, annually. The management of cassava as a forage crop with high levels of fertilization have recently been documented by Preston et al (2000) and Preston (2001). Ravindran (1993) reported that annual leaf dry matter yields of over 21 tons/ha can be obtained, and also processing of livestock manure in biodigesters results in conversion of much of the organic nitrogen to ammonia (Khieu Borin and Preston T R 2001, unpublished data). This makes the biodigester effluent a potential better source of plant nutrient than manure from which it is derived. This data is supported with Le Ha Chau (1998) who addressed that the effluent supported higher yields of foliage with a higher protein content than the raw manure.

 

4.2. Cassava leaves as source of protein for pigs

Cassava leaves are a good source of minerals, particularly Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn and Zn (Ravindran and Ravindran 1988). Cassava leaves are also rich in ascorbic acid and vitamin A, and contain significant amounts of riboflavin. But considerable losses of vitamins, particularly of ascorbic acid, occur during processing (Ravindran 1992). 

Ensiling of cassava leaves is an appropriate way to conserve them (Limon 1992; Bui Van Chinh et al 1992; Du Thanh Hang 1998; Bui Huy Nhu Phuc et al 1996; Bui Van Chinh 1990; Ravindran 1990; Chhay Ty et al 2001; Bui Van Chinh and Le Viet Ly 2001), animal performance traits (Du Thanh Hang 1998; Nguyen Van Lai et al 2000; Bui Van Chinh and Le Viet Ly 2001) and the nutritive value of the material (Du Thanh Hang et al 1997; Nguyen Van Lai and Rodriguez 1998; Du Thanh Hang 2000). The experiments related to the observation of the ensiling process have been mainly directed to reducing the cyanide content.  Furthermore, the levels of inclusion of ensiled cassava leaves have been relatively low and the protein formulation of the diet has been made with vegetable proteins. In fact, since the early work of Eggum (1970), it is well known that cassava leaves are very rich in lysine, but the sulphur amino acid content of the material is rather low. This point has received little attention, in spite of the fact that methionine is  involved in the detoxification process in the animal . 

4.3.Anti-nutritional cassava

Antinutritional factors in livestock feedstuffs are widespread. Consumption of feed containing these constituents may lower feed intake, nutrient utilization, feed conversion efficiency and animal performance as well as economics. At high level of dietary intake toxicity ensures and sometime even animals will die. The unconventional feed resource may contain antinutritional feed and it could be conventional feed of the future (Makkar 1993). In cassava have contain antinutritional such as Tannins and HCN

 

4.3.1. Tannins

 

In cassava contain tannins, which are a diverse group of polyphenolic substances. Tannins can be defined as any phenolic compound of moderately high molecular weight containing sufficient phenolic hydroxyls and other suitable groups to effectively form strong complex with protein and other macromolecules (Van soest et al 1987). Tannins have recognises two types of tannins,(1) the condensed tannin which are meric forms of flavonols, and (2) the hydrolysable tannins which are ester of sugar and plyhydroxyphenolic acids. These compound have effects on growth and capacity to low the protein digestibility and amino acid availability either by forming indigestible complexes with dietarty protein or by inactivation of proteolytic enzymes (Kumar and Sing 1984), reduce feed intake may occur due to the slowdown in the digeston of the feed or due to unpalatibility (Kumar and D’Mello 1995). Tannins content increase with maturity and vary between cultivation (Ravindran 1993). Tannin content in cassava vary from 30 to 50g/kg DM (Ravindran 1993)

 

4.3.2. Cyanogenic glycosides

The cyanogenic glycosides are toxic to animals when hydrocyanide acid is generated (Van Soest 1994). The glycosides decomposed by betaglucosidases (Polton 1988; CARB 1997) and hydroxynitrile lyases (Poulton 1988) to form hydrocyanic acid (HCN). Though this enzymes are not present in mannalian tissues, microflora in the human intestinal system are able to produce cyanide-releasing enzyme (CARB 1997). HCN is colourless volatile and extremely poisonous. HCN is detoxicated in the body mainly by rhodanese to a less toxic compound called thiocyanate (Hartung 1983). It take radicals some days to be excreted in urine (Baskin and Brewer 1997). Due to this rapid detoxication, animal are able to ingest amounts of cyanide only slightly less than lethal does over extended periods without apparent harm (Humphreys 1988), Stosic and kaykay (1981) noted that small quantities of HCN ingested on a regular basis, though not large enough to cause mortality, may be sufficient to affect the general health and productivity of the animal and other studies on HCN also showed that cyanides may be associated with malformation and low weight of foetuses      (USEPA 1999). In term of mortality due to HCN, an amount of 2mg/kg of liveweight is considered the minimum lethal does for most species (Clarke and Clarke 1967) and a single intake of 4mg per os as definitely lethal (Humphreys 1988). Humphreys (1988) also mentioned that feed intake materials containing over 20mg HCN/100 are potentially dangerous to stock.

 

The presence of cyanogenic glucosides could lead to a deficiency of the essential amino acid at poor or marginal supply of methionine, result in reduced animal performance (Oke 1978). Bitterness associated with high cyanogenic glucoside contents in cassava has been reported in a number of studies (Lee and Hutagulung 1972; Mahendranathan 1971; Sudaresan et al 1987). Cyanides is the main antinutritional factor in cassava that reduces the nutritioal quality of the leaf. The content of HCN has different from variety and generally, the cyanide content rang from 200 to 800 mg /kg fresh leaf but values as low as 80 mg/kg DM (Wood 1965) and hight as over 4000mg/kg fresh leaf (Ravindran and Ravindran 1988) and also depend on nutritional status of the plant, and is increase by N fertilization (De Bruilin 1973). The glucoside concentration in cassava leaves decrease with the age (Lutaladio 1984; Ravindran and Ravindran 1988). The elimination of cyanogens by heating will depend on the temperature , the stage of development of plant, and the type of heat, simple sun drying or oven drying has been reported to eliminate almost 90% (Oke 1994) and sun drying reduces the cyanogen content of cassava leaf more effectiely than ensiling because of the stability of the linamarase at low pH values (Oke 1994). Despite its high content of HCN, documented cases of poisoning due to the ingestion of cassava leaf are rare (Ravindran 1993)

 

4.4.Cassava leaves products as alternative for feeding pigs

 

Cassava silage or meals are alternative means of preserving the nutritive value of cassava root and leaves. Cassava is an all season crop of the humid tropic and ranks among the top 10 food crops in the world, with a high crude protein content. Cassava leaves can be considered as a potential source of crude protein to supplement the low protein foods prepared from the starch rich tubers (Telek and Martin 1983). The nutritive value and potential, as well as the limitation of fresh and dried cassava leaves for pigs have been investigated (Eggum, 1970; Gomez and Valdivieso 1984; Sarwat et al 1998; Ravindra 1990, 1993; Oke 1994)

 

4.4.1.Fresh cassava leaves

Early studies of feeding fresh cassava leaves by Mahendranathan (1971) showed that palatability was depressed and growth performance was lowered with increasing proportion of leaves in swine rations. The adverse effects were evidently due to the high hydrocyanic acid levels in fresh leaves. Since supplementation methionine and thiosulphate improved performance. Sarwat et al (1988) found that inclusion of 15% fresh cassava leaves had no adverse effects on the performance of growing-finishing swine.

4.4.2. Cassava leaves meal (CLM)

Ravindran et al (1987b) evaluated CLM as a substitute for coconut meal. The results showed that CLM can be replace up to 66 percent of coconut meal (26 percent of the total diet) in growing swine diets without adverse effects on performance. Most efficient gains were obtained at 33 percent replacement (13 percent of the total diet), suggesting that use of low levels of CLM feed formulations will permit greater savings in feed cost compared to higher levels. Attempts to utilize CLM as a replacement for other protein supplements in swine diets have been less encouraging. Alhassan and Odoi (1982) reported depressions in gains and feed efficiency when CLM included at 20 and 30% levels in diets for growing- finishing swine. Cassava leaf meal was used to replace part of peanut meal, fish meal and corn in the basal ration. Ravindran (1990) substituted 10, 20 and 30% CLM for a corn-soybean meal basal diet and reported that the gains and feed efficiency of growing pigs were lowered linearly with increasing levels of leaf meal. The performance of pigs on diets containing 10% CLM was improved by methionine and energy supplementation.

4.4.3. Ensilage cassava silage

Bui Huy Nhu Phuc et al 2000, 2001a; Phuc and Lindberg 2000 reported that increased level of protein replacement by cassava leaf protein in pig lead to increased fibre content of the diets and reduction of feed intake, This may be cause by anti-nutritional factor or bitter taste in leaf (Van Soest 1994; Kumar and D’Mello 1995). Mahendranathan (1971) addressed that inclusion levels of cassava leaf 15% of dry matter in dies for pigs the problem will occur, and other result from N balance studies of ensilage cassava leaf is a general trend to a reduction in N retention with increase levels of the silage (Bui Huy Nhu Phuc et al 1996, Nguyen Van Lai and Rodriguez (1998) and Du Than Hang (2000) but their conclusion is not agree from Ly and Samkol 2001 by using 50% of cassava leaves. May be in that the ensilage cassava studies in Vietnam were obtained as a by-product compare with experiment in Cambodia by using foliage that harvested interval every 2-3 months (Preston 2001). Bui Van Chinh and Le viet Ly 2001 reported that increase levels of ensilage cassava top from 15 to 30% decrease growth rate and feed conversion improved but feed intake increase with increase silage cassava top (0.46, 3.7, 0.24g and 0.44, 3.66, 0.52 kg/day).

5. Palm oil for feeding pig

 

In most developing countries, the major energy source in pig diests are maize, cassava, rice. However, these feed are also an energy source in humen diets and it is a fact that competition between humen and livestock has tended to increase the price of food and feed. Many feedstuff  and by-product were use as energy source for animal, but one plant that has not been given much consideration yet is palm oil. An advantage from using palm oil as energy source. It is high caloric and the absence of fibre, this creates opportunities for using unconventional source of protein for pigs such tree leaves (Preston and Murgueitio 1992) and water plants (Van Hove 1986; Lumpkin and Pluckett 1982; Becerra 1991). It can grows widely in the humid tropics, tolerates poor soil and has high potential (Ocampo et al 1990 and 1994; Gohl 1992) and use of crude palm oil and it by-product as a cereal grain replacement in livestock (Hutagulung et al 1981; Devendra et al 1981; Ocampo 1990 and 1992; Preston and Murgueitio 1992). Palm fruits, palm kernel cake, palm oil sludge and oil-rich fibrous residues were largely use for feeding buffaloes, cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, and poltry in Nigeria, Malaysia, Thailand and Colombia (Abu et al 1984; Liang et al 1982; Siriwathananukun 1987; Babjee et al 1991; Ocampo et al 1990, 1992 and 1994). Also some studies on the use of crude palm oil for feeding livestock have been carried out (Omole and Onwudike 1983; balogun et al 1983; Solomon et al 1991) 

 

5.1. The role of oil palm in integrated farming system

 

The crop is not intended for oil extraction but as a strategic base for the production system with the fruit intended for animal feeding. The animal focus is on pigs the species of greatest capacity to achieves an efficient extraction of the oil. The fibrous residues left by the pigs are offered to cattle and horse, the nuts that are not broken by the pigs are recovered and cracked to be offered to hens. The resultant material could be used as fuel or for roads in the plantation. The manure produced by the animals is used for the production of biogas, as a source of organic fertilizer for the crop or for the manufacture compost. The cultivation of oil palm is associated with production of biomass, preferably energy source such as soyabean, cowpea, Trichantera Gigantea likewise it is associated with crop like sogar cane, cassava.

 

Integrated between oil palm and pig are very interesting because pigs stay at the pasture, their will used newly planed areas of palm or other crops. The system are simple so that the pigs could be grazed under the palm tree and it will not be necessary to transport the fruit from the place where it is located. Confined systems may be employed where the area is limited. The oil palm could be associated with other crops in order to complete the animals diet to increase the amount biomass and to make the best use of soil resource, The main objective consists of crops established in associated with the palm  to be used mainly for animal feeding. In this system the input are reduced to the minium possible and it is intended to increase the products, by means of crop and animal integrated. The soil management strategy involves the use of organic material by means of compost, green manure, application of biomass cover and recycling of nutrient from leaves and other residues after harvesting. Animals manure is produced which could be used either to produce biogas. or directly to fertilize the crop. Biogas can be used in the factory as a energy source and it also yields an effluent which rich in mineral and can be applied to the palm or other crop in the farming system (Ocampo 1996).

 

 

5.2. Palm oil as source of energy for pigs

 

Palm oil have been used as ingredients in animal feed research for more than two decades (Roy et al 1973, Fetuga et al 1975) and the experiments on use of palm oil for swine performance and carcass characteritics (Fetuga et al 1975, Devendra et al 1977) and sheep have been conducted in Malaysia and Colombia (Ocampo 1995). Due to similar digestive tract structure and digestion  mechanism with human, monogastics may compete with humans for foodstuffs. Palm oil are mainly used for cooking, direct human consumption and in various industries, but they have also been traditionally used to increase the energy content of the diet and to provide essential fatty acids. Palm oil as well as other vegetable oils and animals fat are used to increase the caloric value of the diets required for fast growing. In tropic where heat stress reduces the appetite and oils and fat increase the energy concentration while reducing the heat increament of feeding result in greater caloric efficiency. Palm oil addition has long been proven to be beneficial to increase the metabolisable energy of diet, which result in greater energy intake and growth rate.  Palm oil is better than rubber seed oil in term of voluntary intake and daily gain but is not different in terms of feed conversion, carcass quality, protein and energy retention.

 

         

 

 

 

5.3. Effect of palm oil on growth performance

 

Experiment carried out in Colombia showed that palm oil (PO) can used as energy source for fattening pigs, and the result showed that growth rates were not affected and feed conversion ratios were improved (654g/d, 1.98 for test diet and 680g/d, 3.08 for control diet) by included 18% of PO in diets (Rodriguez and Cuellar, personal communication). other experiment indicated that replacing sugar can juice with PO with 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% didn’t affect live weight gains (681, 761, 668, 656 and 681g/d). dry matter intake were decreas (2.29, 2.12, 1.78, 1.60 and 1.19kg) and feed conversion ratios were improved (3.34, 2.78, 2.76, 2.43 and 1.75 kg DM /kg gain) for pig between 24-90kg (for 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% PO, respectively). Ngoan and Sarria (1993) showed that substituting PO for sugar cane juice affected grwth performance negatively (772.3, 695.0, 671.5, 630.3 and 607.9 g/d) and reduced feed intake for finishing pigs from 50-90kg LW (1.8, 1.62, 1.57, 1.45 and 1.16kg DM/d for 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% PO, respectively). Other studied in Nigeria showed that  PO inclusion in cassava flour soybean meal based diet improved growth rate, efficiency of liveweight gain of weaner pigs (Balogun et al 1983). Omole and Onwudike, 1983 studied in Nigeria found that inclusion 5% PO in cassava peel meal based diet, the growth rate of rabbits were reduced and feed efficiency with increasing level of cassava peel were less than with the unsupplement diets. Ocampo (1996) showed that when use soya bean meal replacement 20% of protein by Trichanthera leaves, Azolla filiculoides and cassava (Manihot esculenta) by resticted palm oil 450g the result showed that the growth rate, feed intake, feed conversion ratio is bether with soya bean, Trichanthera leaves and cassava (500,1.04,2.08, 500,1.2,2.4, 500,1.14,2.28 respectively). The same experiment but with increasing amount of palm oil from 450g to 1300g/d the result showed that it did not lead to a large response by the animal, but it significantly raised the cost, reduced the quality of the carcass by producing a large amount of fat and affect the feed conversion efficiency. it is appear that pigs respond better to an adequate balance of the source of energy.

 

5.4. Palm oil products as alternatives for feeding pigs

 

5.4.1.Crude palm oil (PO)

 

Crude palm oil( PO ) is product of extracting oil from the fleshy cover of the palm fruit and constitutes only 18-20% of the total fruit bunch weight (Hertramf 1989) PO has been extensively used as an energy source for livestock in Malaysia (Hutagaling et al 1981) for fattening chickens in Venezuela (Odreman and Pena 1987) and for sows and growing-fattening pig in Comlombia and Nigeria (Balogun et al, 1983; Ocampo 1992)

 

A study was conducted using raw palm oil in a pig feeding programme, this experiment was designed to evaluate the benefits of raw palm oil as the basal diet for fattening pigs, and using Azolla filliculoides to replace part of the soya bean meal in the diets (Ocampo 1994a). The daily gain was 0.450, 0.482, 0.457 and 0.407kg/d for growing phase(20-60kg) with sustitute 10, 20 and 30% of Azolla respectively and 0.654, 0.692, 0.666 and 0.528kg/d for fattening phase (60-90kg) and feed conversion ratios was 2.1, 1.98, 2.0 and 2.2 respectively during whole experiment. Also a commercial demonstration in Colombia. The animals were distibute in four groups by using 500g of raw palm oil, 500g of soya bean cake and 500g of rice bran/ animal/day. The daily gain was  0.722, 0.628, 0.524 and 0.464kg per day for each of the group and feed conversion ratios was 1.8, 2.0, 2.4 and 2.8 respectively.

 

5.4.2. Whole palm fruit

 

The use of whole palm fruit was evaluated as an alternative energy source for fattening pigs, being intended as an alternative use for the crop and a further integration of crop and animal production. Ocampo (1994b) was designed to evaluated the sustitution in isocaloric terms of sorghum for 25, 50, 75 and 100% of whole African oil palm fruit during fattening phase. All the animals received resticted protein level based on 200g/pig/day protein from soya bean cake supplement with vitamins and minerals. The weight gain were 0.625, 0.598 and 0.466kg/day respectively and feed conversion was 3.2, 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4. The pig demonstrated excerllent ability to use the whole fruit  by eating all the way into the internal hard nut and they demonstrated their capacity to extract nutrients in a foodstuff without industrial processing. Other experiment demonstrated by supplement of carbohydrates in oil plam diets have had positive effect on the animal respone, this experiment by resticted protein 200g/d (using soya bean cake fortified with vitamin and minerals) and 100, 200, 300 and 400g of rice bran during the growing phase, and 150, 250, 350 and 450g during the fattening phase, the fruit was give ad libitum. The daily gain for whole phase (growing and fatteining) were 0.485, 0.515, 0.492 and 0.497kg/day with feed conversion were 3.2, 3.2, 3.3 and 3.3 respectively. The consumption of whole-fruits was 1.1, 1.1, 1.0 and 0.9 kg/pig/day respectively. The best economic response was found at 200g of rice bran during the growing phase and 250g during the fattening phase. There appear to be excellent prospects for using oil palm fruit and by production in pig nutrition. As an alternative to the industrial extration process, integrated production system can offer a successful and sustainable alternative. 

 

6. Oil palm Cultivation in the world

The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) originated in Africa where groves of wild palm still exist. Cultivated varieties are now grown, however, on the plantation in the equatorial tropics in south-eat Asia and south Ameria as well as in Africa. The early researchers of some 150 year ago said that the palm oil more useful producer of oil than coconut (Hartley 1988). The oil palm is cultivated in four continents and in over 20 countries, production is strongly concentrated in Southeast Asia, in particular Malaysia and Indonesia where the operating environment has been very favourable.

Tabe 4 World major production of palm oil 1994-2000 ( 000 tonnes )
Countries	1994	1995	1996	1997	1998	1999	2000
Malaysia	7403	7221	8386	9069	8320	10554	10842
Indonesia	3421	4008	4540	5380	5100	6250	6900
Nigeria	645	640	670	680	690	720	740
Colombia	323	353	410	441	424	501	524
Cote D lvoire	310	300	280	260	275	282	292
Thailand	297	316	375	390	405	495	560
Papua New Guinea	223	225	272	275	215	264	296
Equador	162	178	188	203	200	230	215
Costa Rica	84	90	109	119	115	110	113
Honduras	80	76	76	77	88	80	78
Brazil	54	71	80	80	89	93	97
Venezuela	21	34	45	54	54	68	81
Guatemala	16	22	36	50	47	52	58
Other	1265	1676	815	825	822	863	934
Total	14304	15210	16282	17903	16844	20562	21730
Source:   i). Oil world Anniual 2000, 1999, 1998 & Oil world weekly 30 March 2001 ii). MPOB- for data on Malysian palm oil and palm kernel oil

 

The yield of oil palm is estimated at 20t/ha/yr of fresh fruit bunches (Espinal 1986; Garza 1986), is capable of producing between 3 to 5 t/ha of crude oil from the fruit (mesocarp) and an additional 0.6 to 1.0 t/ha from the palm kernels (Ocampo et al 1990a). Its productivity is influenced by climate, soil type, genetic factors, maturity, rainfall, fertilization and the harvest period and the yield can reach to 45 tons per ha fresh friut bunch (FFB) and 17 tons oil per ha, the long term productivity is also promising (Soh et al 1994)

 

 

The African palm oil produces two commercial products: raw or crude oil, approximatly 22% of the weight of the fresh fruit bunch, and the palm nuts which represent 4-6% when the nut is processed . The intitial interest in the African oil palm as a feed resource for pig was in the extracted and non-extracted palm kernel meal. the processing oil palm for oil in order to supplement copra oil in the manufacture of soap, paints and for other industries application (Collingwood 1958). the meal was used as a major protein supplement for pigs and cattle

 

Oil palm cultivation started at the beginning of this century (Devendra 1977). By 1980, production of oil had risen to slightly more than five million tons and, by 1992, annual world production reached thirteen million tons. The primary areas of production are southeast Asia, followed by the west coast of Africa and Latin America. Currently, Malaysia produces half the world’s production of palm oil, followed by Indonesia and Nigeria. Presently, the fourth and fastest growing producer of palm oil is Colombia, where production has more than quadrupled in 12 years. in that country (Ocampo et al 1990b) has reproted that the average annual production of fruit is 15 t/ha of which raw oil represent slightly more than three tons.

                                   

                                   

7. Oil Palm plantation in Cambodia

 

Palm oil plantation in Cambodia is belong to privated company namely Mong Reththy Investment Cambodia Oil Palm Co., Ltd (MRICOP) has been contracted with Ministry of Agriculture; Forestry and Fisheries in 9th January 1996 with 70 years to invest and develop an Oil palm plantation with Processing facilities in Prey Nop district, Sihanouk Ville; Kingdom of Cambodia. The project area for oil palm cultivation is 11000 ha. Until now Company has been cultivated oil palm 3700 ha with differents source of planting material. The most obvious benefit arising from estblishment of a large oil palm plantation in Cambodia is the substantial level of rural employment which are created, At the present, the source of labour (2000 Harvesters) for the oil palm plantation is from surrounding villages and the company has donated an area of land within the plantation for the establishment of Khmeng Wat (childrens live in pagoda) village which has already increased considerable in size to 307 families (1679 persons)  which reduce poverty and raise living standards in the district. Beside this, company provided by the estate hospital, road, school and house training for numerous local graduates. Related the yield of oil palm, The company is not yet know but it is depend on the age of oil palm.

 

 

Tabe8 Year planded oil palm in Cambodia
Year	Ha	Source of planting material
1997	457	ASD Costa Rica/Unipalm Zaire
1998	1040	ASD Costa Rica/Guthrie Malaysia
1999	1620	ASD Costa Rica/Guthrie Malaysia
2000	470	ASD Costa Rica
2001	80	ASD Costa Rica
2002	33	Univanich Thailand
Total	3700

 

8. Palm Oil Processed manually

 

Oil Palm plantation in Cambodia is a privated Company with the namly Mong Reththy Investment Cambodia Company Limited which  starting contrat with Ministry of Agriculture & Forestries  from 9th January 1996 to invest and develop an oil palm plantation with processing facilities in Prey Nop district, Sihanouk Ville, Kingdom of Cambodia, but until now the Company not yet install factory for processing the oil palm (July 2002) but we have other way to extract the oil from the oil palm by easy way, the process as follow

 

Conclusion

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Acknowledgements

 

The studied of this thesis were carried out at the University of Tropical Agriculture (UTA) in Cambodia.

 

I would like to express my sincere gratitue to:

 

My supervisor Dr Thomas Reg Preston; director of university of tropical agriculture (UTA), and MS.c Lylian Rodriguzr for their interest in my studies, guidance, encouragement and many good advice for me from the beginning until the present and also especial thank to them for their gave me a good chance to attempt in this course.

 

Dr Julio Ly, Senior Scientist, Visiting Researcher (Swine Research Institute La Habana, Cuba) for his many advise for my thesis and laboratory since beginning until now. 

 

Dr R.Brian Ogle, director of the course in Sustainable Livestock Production System in the Tropics.

 

MSc. Khieu Borin for his encourage me and advise.

 

Mong Reththy company, especially Dr Hilston (general manager) and his assistance ( Mr Ith Nop, Estate manager and Mr Bun Roth, Senior assistant manager) for their help me and give me many document related to palm oil in the company also in the world during my thesis.

 

It is impossible to mention here anyone, i would like to thank the staff member of university of tropical agriculture  and also all my classmates whom in one way contrituded to this study for their help, suggestion and comments.

 

Last but not least, a special thank to my parent and brothers, sister for their support and give  a good chance for me from beginning until now.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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